1. Field of the Invention
This invention resides in the field of steel alloys, particularly those of high strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and ductility, and also in the technology of the processing of steel alloys to form microstructures that provide the steel with particular physical and chemical properties.
2. Description of the Prior Art
Steel alloys of high strength and toughness whose microstructures are composites of martensite and austenite phases are disclosed in the following United States patents and published international patent application, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety:                U.S. Pat. No. 4,170,497 (Gareth Thomas and Bangaru V. N. Rao), issued Oct. 9, 1979 on an application filed Aug. 24, 1977        U.S. Pat. No. 4,170,499 (Gareth Thomas and Bangaru V. N. Rao), issued Oct. 9, 1979 on an application filed Sep. 14, 1978 as a continuation-in-part of the above application filed on Aug. 24, 1977        U.S. Pat. No. 4,619,714 (Gareth Thomas, Jae-Hwan Ahn, and Nack-Joon Kim), issued Oct. 28, 1986 on an application filed Nov. 29, 1984, as a continuation-in-part of an application filed on Aug. 6, 1984        U.S. Pat. No. 4,671,827 (Gareth Thomas, Nack J. Kim, and Ramamoorthy Ramesh), issued Jun. 9, 1987 on an application filed on Oct. 11, 1985        U.S. Pat. No. 6,273,968 B1 (Gareth Thomas), issued Aug. 14, 2001 on an application filed on Mar. 28, 2000        U.S. Pat. No. 6,709,534 B1 (Grzegorz J. Kusinski, David Pollack, and Gareth Thomas), issued Mar. 23, 2004 on an application filed on Dec. 14, 2001        U.S. Pat. No. 6,746,548 (Grzegorz J. Kusinski, David Pollack, and Gareth Thomas), issued Jun. 8, 2004 on an application filed on Dec. 14, 2001        WO 2004/046400 A1 (MMFX Technologies Corporation; Grzegorz J. Kusinski and Gareth Thomas, inventors), published Jun. 3, 2004        
The microstructure plays a key role in establishing the properties of a particular steel alloy, the strength and toughness of the alloy depending not only on the selection and amounts of the alloying elements, but also on the crystalline phases present and their arrangement in the microstructure. Alloys intended for use in certain environments require higher strength and toughness, while others require ductility as well. Often, the optimal combination of properties includes properties in conflict with each other, since certain alloying elements, microstructural features, or both that contribute to one property may detract from another.
The alloys disclosed in the documents listed above are carbon steel alloys that have microstructures consisting of laths of martensite alternating with thin films of austenite. In some cases, the martensite is dispersed with carbide precipitates produced by autotempering. The arrangement in which laths of martensite are separated by thin films of austenite is referred to as a “dislocated lath” or simply “lath” structure, and is formed by first heating the alloy into the austenite range, then cooling the alloy below the martensite start temperature Ms, which is the temperature at which the martensite phase first begins to form. This final cooling brings the alloy into a temperature range in which the austenite transforms into the martensite-austenite lath structure, and is accompanied by standard metallurgical processing, such as casting, heat treatment, rolling, and forging, to achieve the desired shape of the product and to refine the lath structure as an alternating lath and thin-film arrangement. This lath structure is preferable to a twinned martensite structure, since the alternating lath and thin-film structure has greater toughness. The patents also disclose that excess carbon in the martensite regions of the structure precipitates during the cooling process to form cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C). This precipitation is known as “autotempering.” The '968 patent discloses that autotempering can be avoided by limiting the choice of the alloying elements such that the martensite start temperature Ms is 350° C. or greater. In certain alloys the carbides produced by autotempering add to the toughness of the steel while in others the carbides limit the toughness.
The lath structure produces a high-strength steel that is both tough and ductile, qualities that are needed for resistance to crack propagation and for sufficient formability to permit the successful fabrication of engineering components from the steel. Controlling the martensite phase to achieve a lath structure rather than a twinned structure is one of the most effective means of achieving the necessary levels of strength and toughness, while the thin films of retained austenite contribute to the ductility and formability of the steel. Obtaining the lath microstructure without the twinned structure is achieved by a careful selection of the alloy composition, which in turn affects the value of Ms, and by controlled cooling protocols.
Another factor affecting the strength and toughness of the steel is the presence of dissolved gases. Hydrogen gas in particular is known to cause embrittlement as well as a reduction in ductility and load-bearing capacity. Cracking and catastrophic brittle failures have been known to occur at stresses below the yield stress of the steel, particularly in line-pipe steels and structural steels. The hydrogen tends to diffuse along the grain boundaries of the steel and to combine with the carbon in the steel to form methane gas. The gas collects in small voids at the grain boundaries where it builds up pressures that initiate cracks. One of the methods by which hydrogen is removed from the steel during processing is vacuum degassing, which is typically done on the steel in molten form at pressures ranging from about 1 torr to about 150 torr. In certain applications, such as steels produced in mini-mills, operations involving electric arc furnaces, and operations involving ladle metallurgy stations, vacuum degassing of molten steel is not economical, and either a limited vacuum or no vacuum is used. In these applications, the hydrogen is removed by a baking heat treatment. Typical conditions for the treatment are a temperature of 300–700° C. and a heating time of several hours such as twelve hours. This removes the dissolved hydrogen, but unfortunately it also causes carbide precipitation. Since carbide precipitation is the result of the expulsion of carbon from phases that are supersaturated with carbon, the precipitation occurs at the interfaces between the different phases or between the grains. Precipitates at these locations lower the ductility of the steel and provide sites where corrosion is readily initiated.
In many cases, carbide precipitation is very difficult to avoid, particularly since the formation of multi-phase steel necessarily involves phase transformations by heating or cooling, and the saturation level of carbon in a particular phase varies from one phase to the next. Thus, low ductility and susceptibility to corrosion are often problems that are not readily controllable.